Nearly two-thirds of adults in the United States are
overweight, and 30.5 percent are obese, according to data from the
1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).
This fact sheet presents statistics on the prevalence of
overweight and obesity in the U.S., as well as their disease,
mortality, and economic costs. To understand these statistics, it
is necessary to know how overweight and obesity are defined and
measured. This fact sheet also explains why statistics from
different sources may not match.
Overweight and obesity are known risk factors for:
diabetes
heart disease
stroke
hypertension
gallbladder disease
osteoarthritis (degeneration of cartilage and bone of
joints)
sleep apnea and other breathing problems
some forms of cancer (uterine, breast, colorectal, kidney,
and gallbladder)
Obesity is also associated with:
high blood cholesterol
complications of pregnancy
menstrual irregularities
hirsutism (presence of excess body and facial hair)
stress incontinence (urine leakage caused by weak
pelvic-floor muscles)
Overweight refers to an excess
of body weight compared to set standards. The excess weight may
come from muscle, bone, fat, and/or body water. Obesity refers
specifically to having an abnormally high proportion of body fat.[1]
A person can be overweight without being obese, as in the example
of a bodybuilder or other athlete who has a lot of muscle.
However, many people who are overweight are also obese.
A number of
methods are used to determine if someone is overweight or obese.
Some are based on the relation between height and weight; others
are based on measurements of body fat. The most commonly used
method today is body mass index (BMI).
BMI can be used to screen for both overweight and obesity in
adults. It is the measurement of choice for many obesity
researchers and other health professionals, as well as the
definition used in most published information on overweight and
obesity. BMI is a calculation based on height and weight, and it
is not gender-specific. BMI does not directly measure percent of
body fat, but it is a more accurate indicator of overweight and
obesity than relying on weight alone.
BMI is found by dividing a person’s weight in kilograms by
height in meters squared. The mathematical formula is: weight (kg) / height squared (m²).
To determine BMI using pounds and inches, multiply your
weight in pounds by 704.5,* then divide the result by your
height in inches, and divide that result by your height in
inches a second time. (Or you can use the BMI calculator at http://www.nhlbisupport.com/bmi/,
or check the chart shown below that has calculated BMI for you.)
* The multiplier 704.5 is used by the National Institutes
of Health. Other organizations may use a slightly different
multiplier; for example, the American Dietetic Association
suggests multiplying by 700. The variation in outcome (a few
tenths) is insignificant.
To
use the table, find the appropriate height in the left-hand column
labeled Height. Move across to a given weight. The number at the
top of the column is the BMI at that height and weight. Pounds
have been rounded off.
Weight
(Pounds)
BMI
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Height
(Inches)
58
91
96
100
105
110
115
119
124
129
134
138
143
148
153
158
162
167
172
177
181
186
191
59
94
99
104
109
114
119
124
128
133
138
143
148
153
158
163
168
173
178
183
188
193
198
60
97
102
107
112
118
123
128
133
138
143
148
153
158
163
168
174
179
184
189
194
199
204
61
100
106
111
116
122
127
132
137
143
148
153
158
164
169
174
180
185
190
195
201
206
211
62
104
109
115
120
126
131
136
142
147
153
158
164
169
175
180
186
191
196
202
207
213
218
63
107
113
118
124
130
135
141
146
152
158
163
169
175
180
186
191
197
203
208
214
220
225
64
110
116
122
128
134
140
145
151
157
163
169
174
180
186
192
197
204
209
215
221
227
232
65
114
120
126
132
138
144
150
156
162
168
174
180
186
192
198
204
210
216
222
228
234
240
66
118
124
130
136
142
148
155
161
167
173
179
186
192
198
204
210
216
223
229
235
241
247
67
121
127
134
140
146
153
159
166
172
178
185
191
198
204
211
217
223
230
236
242
249
255
68
125
131
138
144
151
158
164
171
177
184
190
197
204
210
216
223
230
236
243
249
256
262
69
128
135
142
149
155
162
169
176
182
189
196
203
210
216
223
230
236
243
250
257
263
270
70
132
139
146
153
160
167
174
181
188
195
202
209
216
222
229
236
243
250
257
264
271
278
71
136
143
150
157
165
172
179
186
193
200
208
215
222
229
236
243
250
257
265
272
279
286
72
140
147
154
162
169
177
184
191
199
206
213
221
228
235
242
250
258
265
272
279
287
294
73
144
151
159
166
174
182
189
197
204
212
219
227
235
242
250
257
265
272
280
288
295
302
74
148
155
163
171
179
186
194
202
210
218
225
233
241
249
256
264
272
280
287
295
303
311
75
152
160
168
176
184
192
200
208
216
224
232
240
248
256
264
272
279
287
295
303
311
319
76
156
164
172
180
189
197
205
213
221
230
238
246
254
263
271
279
287
295
304
312
320
328
An expert panel convened by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood
Institute (NHLBI) in cooperation with the National Institute of
Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), both part of
the National Institutes of Health (NIH) identified overweight as a
BMI of 25–29.9 kg/m², and obesity as a BMI of 30 kg/m² or
greater. However, overweight and obesity are not mutually
exclusive, since people who are obese are also overweight.[1]
Defining overweight as a BMI of 25 or greater is consistent with
the recommendations of the World Health Organization <[2] and
most other countries.
Calculating BMI is simple, quick, and inexpensive—but it does
have limitations. One problem with using BMI as a measurement tool
is that very muscular people may fall into the “overweight”
category when they are actually healthy and fit. Another problem
with using BMI is that people who have lost muscle mass, such as
the elderly, may be in the “healthy weight”
category—according to their BMI—when they actually have
reduced nutritional reserves. BMI, therefore, is useful as a
general guideline to monitor trends in the population, but by
itself is not diagnostic of an individual patient’s health
status. Further evaluation of a patient should be performed to
determine his or her weight status and associated health risks.
Why do statistics about overweight and obesity
differ?
The
definitions or measurement characteristics for overweight and
obesity have varied over time, from study to study, and from one
part of the world to another. The varied definitions affect
prevalence statistics and make it difficult to compare data from
different studies. Prevalence refers to the total number of
existing cases of a disease or condition in a given population at
a given time. Some overweight- and obesity-related prevalence
rates are presented as crude or unadjusted estimates, while others
are age-adjusted estimates. Unadjusted prevalence estimates
are used to present cross-sectional data for population groups at
a given point or time period. For age-adjusted rates, statistical
procedures are used to remove the effect of age differences in
populations that are being compared over different time periods.
Unadjusted estimates and age-adjusted estimates will yield
slightly different values.
Previous studies in the United States have used the 1959 or the
1983 Metropolitan Life Insurance tables of desirable
weight-for-height as the reference for overweight.[3] More
recently, many Government agencies and scientific health
organizations have estimated overweight using data from a series
of cross-sectional surveys called the National Health Examination
Surveys (NHES) and the National Health and Nutrition Examination
Surveys (NHANES). The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)
of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducted
these surveys. Each had three cycles: NHES I, II, and III spanned
the period from 1960 to 1970, and NHANES I, II, and III were
conducted in the 1970’s, 1980’s, and early 1990’s. Since
1999, NHANES has become a continuous survey.
Many reports in the literature use a statistically derived
definition of overweight from NHANES II (1976–1980). This
definition (based on the gender-specific 85th percentile values of
BMI for 20 to 29 year olds) is a BMI greater than or equal to (>)
27.3 for women and 27.8 for men. NHANES II further defines
“severe overweight” (based on 95th percentile values) as BMI >
31.1 for men and BMI > 32.2 for women.[4] Some studies
round these numbers to a whole number, which affects the
statistical prevalence. In 1995, the World Health Organization
recommended a classification for three “grades” of overweight
using BMI cutoff points of 25, 30, and 40.[5] The International
Obesity Task Force suggested an additional cutoff point of 35 and
slightly different terminology.[6]
The expert panel convened by NHLBI and NIDDK released a report
in June 1998, that provided definitions for overweight and obesity
similar to those used by the World Health Organization. The panel
identified overweight as a BMI > 25 to less than
(<)30, and obesity as a BMI > 30. These definitions,
widely used by the Federal government and increasingly by the
broader medical and scientific communities, are based on evidence
that health risks increase more steeply in individuals with a BMI >
25.
BMI cutoff points are a guide for definitions of
overweight and obesity and are useful for comparative purposes
across populations and over time; however, the health risks
associated with overweight and obesity are on a continuum and do
not necessarily correspond to rigid cutoff points. For example, an
overweight individual with a BMI of 29 does not acquire additional
health consequences associated with obesity simply by crossing the
BMI threshold > 30. However, health risks generally
increase with increasing BMI.
Prevalence statistics related to overweight and
obesity*
* The statistics presented here are based on
the following definitions unless otherwise specified: overweight =
BMI> 25 to < 30; obesity = BMI > 30.
Overweight and
obesity are found worldwide, and the prevalence of these
conditions in the United States ranks high along with other
developed nations. Approximately 300,000 adult deaths in the
United States each year are attributable to unhealthy dietary
habits and physical inactivity or sedentary behavior.[7]
Below are some frequently asked questions and answers about
overweight and obesity statistics. Data are based on NHANES
1999-2000. Unless otherwise specified, the figures given represent
age-adjusted estimates. Population numbers are based on the U.S.
Census Bureau Census 2000.
Q: How many adults are overweight?
A: Nearly two-thirds of U.S. adults are overweight (BMI >
25, which includes those who are obese).[8]
All adults (20+ years old): 129.6 million (64.5 percent)
Women (20+ years old): 64.5 million (61.9 percent)
Men (20+ years old): 65.1 million (67.2 percent)
Q: How many adults are obese?
A: Nearly one-third of U.S. adults are obese (BMI >
30).[8]
All adults (20+ years old): 61.3 million (30.5 percent)
Women (20+ years old): 34.7 million (33.4 percent)
Men (20+ years old): 26.6 million (27.5 percent)
Q: How many adults are at a healthy weight?
A: Less than half of U.S. adults have a healthy weight
(BMI > 18.5 to < 25).[9]
All adults (20-74 years old): 67.3 million (33.5 percent)
Women (20-74 years old): 36.7 million (35.3 percent)
Men (20-74 years old): 30.6 million (31.8 percent)
Q: How has the prevalence of overweight and obesity in adults
changed over the years?
A: The prevalence has steadily increased over the years
among both genders, all ages, all racial/ethnic groups, all
educational levels, and all smoking levels.10 From 1960 to 2000,
the prevalence of overweight (BMI > 25 to < 30)
increased from 31.5 to 33.6 percent in U.S. adults aged 20 to
74.[9]The prevalence of obesity (BMI > 30) during this
same time period more than doubled from 13.3 to 30.9 percent, with
most of this rise occurring in the past 20 years.8 From 1988 to
2000, the prevalence of extreme obesity (BMI > 40)
increased from 2.9 to 4.7 percent, up from 0.8 percent in 1960.3,8
In 1991, four states had obesity rates of 15 percent or higher,
and none had obesity rates above 16 percent. By 2000, every state
except Colorado had obesity rates of 15 percent or more, and 22
states had obesity rates of 20 percent or more.11 The prevalence
of overweight and obesity generally increases with advancing age,
then starts to decline among people over 60.[3]
Q: What is the prevalence of overweight and obesity in
minorities?
A: The age-adjusted prevalence of combined overweight
and obesity (BMI > 25) in racial/ethnic
minorities—especially minority women—is generally higher than
in whites in the United States.[8]
Non-Hispanic Black women: 77.3%
Mexican American women: 71.9%
Non-Hispanic White women: 57.3%
Non-Hispanic Black men: 60.7%
Mexican American men: 74.7%
Non-Hispanic White men: 67.4%
(Statistics are for populations 20+ years old)
Studies using this definition of overweight and obesity provide
ethnicity-specific data only for these three racial-ethnic groups.
Studies using definitions of overweight and obesity from NHANES II
have reported a high prevalence of overweight and obesity among
Hispanics and American Indians. The prevalence of overweight (BMI >
25) and obesity (BMI > 30) in Asian Americans is lower
than in the population as a whole.[1]
Figure 1. Age-adjusted prevalence of overweight (BMI 25-29.9)
and obesity (BMI > 30)
* Overweight is defined by the sex- and
age-specific 95th percentile cutoff points of the revised NCHS/CDC
growth charts. The revised growth charts incorporate smoothed BMI
percentiles and are based on data from NHES II (1963-65) and III
(1966-1970), and NHANES I (1971-1974), II (1976-1980), and III
(1988-1994); the CDC BMI growth charts specifically excluded
NHANES III data for children ages > 6 years.[13]
Q: What is the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children
and adolescents?
A: While there is no generally accepted definition for obesity
as distinct from overweight in children and adolescents,
the prevalence of overweight* is increasing for children
and adolescents in the United States. Approximately 15.3 percent
of children (ages 6–11) and 15.5 percent of adolescents (ages
12–19) were overweight in 2000. An additional 15 percent of
children and 14.9 percent of adolescents were at risk for
overweight (BMI for age between the 85th and 95th percentile).[12]
Q: What is the prevalence of diabetes in people who are
overweight or obese?
A: Among people diagnosed with type 2 (noninsulin-dependent)
diabetes, 67 percent have a BMI > 27 and 46 percent have
a BMI > 30.[14] About 17 million people in the U.S. have
type 2 diabetes, accounting for more than 90 percent of diabetes
cases.[15] An additional 20 million have impaired glucose
tolerance, sometimes called pre-diabetes, which is a strong risk
factor for developing diabetes later in life. An estimated 70
percent of diabetes risk in the U.S. can be attributed to excess
weight.[16] For more statistics on diabetes, go to: www.diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/index.htm.
Q: What is the prevalence of hypertension (high blood pressure)
in people who are overweight or obese?
A: The age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension in
overweight U.S. adults is 22.1 percent for men with BMI ?
25 and < 27; 27.0 percent for men with BMI > 27 and
< 30; 27.7 percent for women with BMI > 25 and <
27; and 32.7 percent for women BMI > 27 and < 30. In
comparison, the prevalence of hypertension in adults who are not
overweight (BMI <25) is 14.9 percent for men and 15.2 percent
for women. The prevalence in adults who are obese (BMI >
30) is 41.9 percent for men and 37.8 percent for women.17
(Hypertension is defined as mean systolic blood pressure >
140 mm Hg, mean diastolic > 90 mm Hg, or currently
taking antihypertensive medication.)
Q: What is the prevalence of high blood cholesterol in people
who are overweight or obese?
A: The age-adjusted prevalence of high blood cholesterol
(> 240 mg/dL) in overweight U.S. adults is 19.1 percent
for men with BMI > 25 and < 27; 21.6 percent for men
with BMI > 27 and < 30; 30.5 percent for women with
BMI > 25 and < 27; and 29.6 percent for women BMI >
27 and < 30. In comparison, the prevalence of high cholesterol
in adults who are not overweight (BMI <25) is 13.0 percent for
men and 13.4 percent for women. The prevalence for adults who are
obese (BMI > 30) is 22.0 percent for men and 27.0
percent for women.[17]
Q: What is the prevalence of cancer in people who are overweight
or obese?
A: While direct prevalence information is not available,
a recent study found that people whose BMI was 40 or more had
death rates from cancer that were 52 percent higher for men and 62
percent higher for women than rates for normal-weight men and
women. Overweight and obesity could account for 14 percent of
cancer deaths among men and 20 percent among women in the U.S. In
both men and women, higher BMI is associated with higher death
rates from cancers of the esophagus, colon and rectum, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, and kidney. The same trend applies to
cancers of the stomach and prostate in men and cancers of the
breast, uterus, cervix, and ovaries in women.[18] Almost half of
post-menopausal women diagnosed with breast cancer have a BMI >
29.19 In one study (the Nurses’ Health Study), women gaining
more than 20 pounds from age 18 to midlife doubled their risk of
breast cancer, compared to women whose weight remained stable.[20]
Q: What is the mortality rate associated with obesity?
A: Most studies show an increase in mortality rate
associated with obesity (BMI > 30). Obese individuals
have a 50 to 100 percent increased risk of death from all causes,
compared with normal-weight individuals (BMI 20–25). Most of the
increased risk is due to cardiovascular causes.[21] Life
expectancy of a moderately obese person could be shortened by 2 to
5 years. White men between 20 and 30 years old with a BMI >
45 could shorten their life expectancy by 13 years; white women in
the same category could lose up to 8 years of life. Young African
American men with a BMI > 45 could lose up to 20 years
of life; African American women, up to 5.[22]
As the prevalence
of overweight and obesity has increased in the United States, so
have related health care costs—both direct and indirect. Direct
health care costs refer to preventive, diagnostic, and treatment
services (for example, physician visits, medications, and hospital
and nursing home care). Indirect costs are the value of wages lost
by people unable to work because of illness or disability, as well
as the value of future earnings lost by premature death.
Most of the statistics presented below represent the economic
cost of overweight and obesity in the United States in 1995,
updated to 2001 dollars.[23] Unless otherwise noted, the
statistics given are adapted from Wolf and Colditz,24 who based
their data on existing epidemiological studies that defined
overweight and obesity as a BMI > 29. Because the
prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased since 1995, the
costs today are higher than the figures given here.
*A recent study estimated annual medical
spending due to overweight and obesity (BMI > 25) to be
as much as $92.6 billion in 2002 dollars (9.1 percent of U.S.
health expenditures).[25]
Q: What is the cost of overweight and obesity?
A:Total cost: $117 billion , Direct cost:
$61 billion,* Indirect cost: $56 billion (comparable to the
economic costs of cigarette smoking)
Q: What is the cost of heart disease related to overweight and
obesity?
A:Direct cost: $8.8 billion (17 percent of the
total direct cost of heart disease, independent of stroke)
Q: What is the cost of type 2 diabetes related to overweight and
obesity?
A:Total cost: $98 billion (in 2001)[16]
Q: What is the cost of osteoarthritis related to overweight and
obesity?
A: Total cost: $21.2 billion, Direct cost: $5.3
billion, Indirect cost: $15.9 billion
Q: What is the cost of hypertension (high blood pressure)
related to overweight and obesity?
A: Direct cost: $4.1 billion (17 percent of the total
cost of hypertension)
Q: What is the cost of gallbladder disease related to overweight
and obesity?
A: Total cost: $3.4 billion, Direct cost: $3.2
billion, Indirect cost: $187 million
Q: What is the cost of cancer related to overweight and obesity?
A: Breast cancer: Total cost: $2.9 billion, Direct cost:
$1.1 billion, Indirect cost: $1.8 billion
Endometrial cancer: Total cost: $933 million, Direct
cost: $310 million, Indirect cost: $623 million
Colon cancer: Total cost: $3.5 billion, Direct cost:
$1.3 billion, Indirect cost: $2.2 billion
Q: What is the cost of lost productivity related to obesity?
A: The cost of lost productivity related to obesity (BMI
> 30) among Americans ages 17–64 is $3.9 billion. This
value considers the following annual numbers (for 1994):
Workdays lost related to obesity: 39.3 million
Physician office visits related to obesity: 62.7 million
Restricted activity days related to obesity: 239.0 million
Bed-days related to obesity: 89.5 million
Other statistics related to overweight and
obesity
Q: How much do we
spend on weight-loss products and services?
A: Americans spend $33 billion annually on weight-loss
products and services.[26] (This figure represents consumer
dollars spent in the early 1990’s on all efforts at weight loss
or weight maintenance including low-calorie foods, artificially
sweetened products such as diet sodas, and memberships to
commercial weight-loss centers.)
Q: How physically active is the U.S. population?
A: Less than one-third (31.8 percent) of U.S. adults get
regular leisure-time physical activity (defined as light or
moderate activity five times or more per week for 30 minutes or
more each time and/or vigorous activity three times or more per
week for 20 minutes or more each time). About 10 percent of adults
do no physical activity at all in their leisure time.[27]
About 25 percent of young people (ages 12–21 years)
participate in light to moderate activity (e.g., walking,
bicycling) nearly every day. About 50 percent regularly engage in
vigorous physical activity. Approximately 25 percent report no
vigorous physical activity, and 14 percent report no recent
vigorous or light to moderate physical activity.[28]
Q: What is the cost of lack of physical activity?
A: The direct cost of physical inactivity may be as high
as $24.3 billion.[29]
Q: What are the benefits of physical activity?
A: In addition to helping to control weight, physical
activity decreases the risk of dying from coronary heart disease
and reduces the risk of developing diabetes, hypertension, and
colon cancer.[28]
[1]
Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and
Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. National Institutes
of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. June 1998.
[2] World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and managing
the global epidemic. Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity,
Geneva, 3-5 June, 1997. World Health Organization. Geneva: 1998.
[3] Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL.
Overweight and obesity in the United States: Prevalence and
trends, 1960–1994. International Journal of Obesity.
1998;22:39–47.
[4] Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM. Criteria for definition of
overweight in transition: Background and recommendations for the
United States. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
2000;72:1074-1081.
[5] Physical status: The use and interpretation of
anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health
Organization: Geneva, 1995 (WHO Technical Report Series; 854).
[6] International Obesity Task Force. Managing the global
epidemic of obesity. Report of the WHO Consultation on Obesity,
Geneva, June 5–7, 1997. World Health Organization: Geneva.
[7] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon
General’s Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and
Obesity, 2001.
[8] Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL. Prevalence and
trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. Journal of the
American Medical Association. 2002;288:1723-1727.
[9] Pastor PN, Makuc DM, Reuben C, Xia H. Chartbook on Trends
in the Health of Americans. Health, United States, 2002.
Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2002.
[10] Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales
VS, Marks JS. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related
health risk factors, 2001. Journal of the American Medical
Association. 2003;289(1):76-79.
[11] Mokdad AH, Bowman BA, Ford ES, Vinicor F, Marks JS, Koplan
JP. The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United
States. Journal of the American Medical Association.
2001;286(10):1195-1200.
[12] Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Johnson CL. Prevalence
and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents,
1999-2000. Journal of the American Medical Association.
2002;288:1728-1732.
[13] Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Guo SS, et al. 2000 CDC growth
charts for the United States: Methods and development. National
Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Statistics 11(246).
2002.
[14] Personal communication from Maureen I. Harris, NIDDK/NIH,
to Susan Z. Yanovski, NIDDK/NIH, 1999.
[15] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National
diabetes fact sheet: General information and national estimates on
diabetes in the United States, 2000. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2002.
[16] National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney
Diseases. Diabetes Prevention Program Meeting Summary. August
2001. Diabetes Mellitus Interagency Coordinating Committee
[17] Brown CD, Higgins M, Donato KA, Rohde RC, Garrison R,
Obarzanek E, Ernst ND, Horan M. Body mass index and prevalence of
hypertension and dyslipidemia. Obesity Research.
2000;8(9):605-619
[18] Calle EE, Rodriguez C,
Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ.
Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively
studied cohort of U.S. adults. New England Journal of Medicine.
2003;348(17):1625-1638.
[19] Ballard-Barbash R, Swanson CA. Body weight: Estimation of
risk for breast and endometrial cancers. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 1996;63(suppl):437S–441S.
[20] Huang Z, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, et al. Dual effects of
weight and weight gain on breast cancer risk. Journal of the
America Medical Association. 1997;278:1407–1411.
[21] Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and
Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults—The Evidence
Report. National Institutes of Health. Obesity Research.
1998;6 (suppl)2:51S-209S.
[22] Fontaine KR, Redden DT, Wang C, Westfall AO, Allison DB.
Years of life lost due to obesity. Journal of the American
Medical Association. 2003;289(2):187-93.
[23] Wolf, AM, Manson JE, Colditz GA. The Economic Impact of
Overweight, Obesity and Weight Loss. In: Eckel R, ed. Obesity:
Mechanisms and Clinical Management. Lippincott, Williams and
Wilkins; 2002.
[24] Wolf AM, Colditz GA. Current estimates of the economic
cost of obesity in the United States. Obesity Research.
March 1998; 6(2):97–106.
[26] Colditz GA. Economic costs of obesity. American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition. 1992;55:503-507s.
[27] Barnes MA, Schoenborn CA. Physical activity among adults:
United States, 2000. National Center for Health Statistics.
Advance Data. 2003;(333).
[28] U.S. Department of Health and Humans Services. Physical
Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. 1996.
[29] Colditz GA. Economic costs of obesity and inactivity. Medicine
& Science in Sports & Exercise. 1999; S663-S667.
